I. Nitric Acid (HNO₃)

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I. Nitric Acid ($\text{HNO}_3$)

• Laboratory Preparation from Ammonia (Ostwald Process): This is an industrial process, not typically a lab preparation. It involves three main steps:
  1. Catalytic oxidation of ammonia: Ammonia is oxidized with air over a platinum-rhodium catalyst at high temperature. $$\text{4NH}_3\text{(g)} + \text{5O}_2\text{(g)} \xrightarrow{\text{Pt/Rh catalyst}} \text{4NO(g)} + \text{6H}_2\text{O(g)}$$
  2. Oxidation of nitric oxide: Nitric oxide reacts with excess oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide. $$\text{2NO(g)} + \text{O}_2\text{(g)} \to \text{2NO}_2\text{(g)}$$
  3. Absorption of nitrogen dioxide: Nitrogen dioxide is absorbed in water to form nitric acid. $$\text{3NO}_2\text{(g)} + \text{H}_2\text{O(l)} \to \text{2HNO}_3\text{(aq)} + \text{NO(g)}$$
• Properties: Colorless liquid (pure), strong oxidizing agent, strong acid, corrosive. It turns yellow on standing due to decomposition into nitrogen dioxide.
• Uses: Manufacture of fertilizers (e.g., ammonium nitrate), explosives (e.g., nitroglycerin, TNT), dyes, and plastics.
• Oxides of Nitrogen:
  • Nitrous oxide ($\text{N}_2\text{O}$): Colorless gas, "laughing gas," neutral oxide.
  • Nitric oxide ($\text{NO}$): Colorless gas, reacts with oxygen to form $\text{NO}_2$, neutral oxide.
  • Nitrogen dioxide ($\text{NO}_2$): Reddish-brown gas, pungent odor, acidic oxide, contributes to acid rain.
  • Dinitrogen trioxide ($\text{N}_2\text{O}_3$): Blue liquid, acidic oxide.
  • Dinitrogen tetroxide ($\text{N}_2\text{O}_4$): Colorless gas/liquid, exists in equilibrium with $\text{NO}_2$.
  • Dinitrogen pentoxide ($\text{N}_2\text{O}_5$): White solid, acidic oxide.

II. Carbon

• Allotropes: Uses & Properties:
  • Diamond:
    • Properties: Extremely hard, high melting point, non-conductor of electricity, transparent, high refractive index.
    • Uses: Cutting tools (drills, saws), abrasives, jewelry.
  • Graphite:
    • Properties: Soft, slippery, good conductor of electricity, high melting point, opaque.
    • Uses: Pencil leads, lubricants, electrodes in electrolysis, moderator in nuclear reactors.
  • Amorphous Carbon (e.g., charcoal, coke, carbon black):
    • Properties: Irregular structure, porous, good adsorbent.
    • Uses: Adsorbent (activated charcoal), fuel, pigment (carbon black).
• Laboratory Preparation of Carbon Dioxide ($\text{CO}_2$): Reaction of a carbonate (like calcium carbonate, marble chips) with a dilute acid (like hydrochloric acid). $$\text{CaCO}_3\text{(s)} + \text{2HCl(aq)} \to \text{CaCl}_2\text{(aq)} + \text{H}_2\text{O(l)} + \text{CO}_2\text{(g)}$$
• Properties and Uses of Carbon Dioxide ($\text{CO}_2$):
  • Properties: Colorless, odorless gas, denser than air, sparingly soluble in water (forming carbonic acid), does not support combustion, sublimes at $-78.5^\circ\text{C}$ (dry ice).
  • Uses: Fire extinguishers, carbonation of beverages, refrigerant (dry ice), photosynthesis in plants.
• Carbon (II) Oxide (Carbon Monoxide, $\text{CO}$):
  • Properties: Colorless, odorless, highly toxic gas, slightly less dense than air, burns with a blue flame, good reducing agent.
  • Formation: Incomplete combustion of carbon-containing fuels (e.g., in car engines, charcoal grills with insufficient oxygen). $$\text{2C(s)} + \text{O}_2\text{(g)} \to \text{2CO(g)}$$
• Coal: A fossil fuel formed from the decomposition of plant matter over millions of years under heat and pressure. It is primarily composed of carbon with varying amounts of other elements.
  • Uses: Major source of energy for electricity generation, production of coke, and as a chemical feedstock.
• Coke: A solid carbonaceous residue derived from destructive distillation of coal in the absence of air. It is a purer form of carbon than coal.
  • Uses: Reducing agent in blast furnaces for iron extraction, fuel (e.g., in foundries), production of synthesis gas.