The image shows a titration experiment. Please provide the steps and calculations for: a) Average Volume of solution A used. b) Write a balanced equation & calculate the Conc of NaOH in mol dm⁻³. Ass

These are titre values that are within $\pm 0.10 \, \text{cm}^3$ of each other.

For example, if the concordant titres were $20.10 \, \text{cm}^3$, $20.00 \, \text{cm}^3$, and $20.05 \, \text{cm}^3$:

(Note: This is a hypothetical example. You would use your actual experimental data.)

• b) Write a balanced equation & calculate the Conc of NaOH in mol dm$^{-3}$.

Assuming solution A (Aqueous sodium hydroxide, NaOH) is titrated against solution E (Hydrochloric Acid, HCl).

The mole ratio of NaOH to HCl is $1:1$.

Let's assume:

• Concentration of standard HCl (Solution E), $C_{\text{HCl}} = 0.100 \, \text{mol dm}^{-3}$
• Volume of HCl (Solution E) pipetted, $V_{\text{HCl}} = 25.00 \, \text{cm}^3 = 0.02500 \, \text{dm}^3$
• Hypothetical average volume of NaOH (Solution A) used, $V_{\text{NaOH}} = 20.05 \, \text{cm}^3 = 0.02005 \, \text{dm}^3$
• Mole ratio from equation, $n_{\text{NaOH}} : n_{\text{HCl}} = 1:1$

Since the mole ratio of NaOH to HCl is $1:1$:

Rounding to three significant figures:

(Note: This calculation uses hypothetical values. You would substitute your actual average volume of NaOH and the known concentration and volume of the acid used.)

• c) State one possible source of error in the experiment and how it could be minimized.

One possible source of error is overshooting the endpoint during titration. This occurs when too much of the titrant (e.g., NaOH) is added beyond the point where the reaction is complete, leading to an inaccurate volume reading. This error can be minimized by adding the titrant drop by drop as the endpoint is approached, especially after the indicator starts to show temporary color changes, and by swirling the flask continuously to ensure thorough mixing.