All of the listed options are associated factors of infertility in males. a. Cigarette smoking: Smoking can negatively affect sperm quality, including sperm count, motility, and morphology, and can damage sperm DNA. b. Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD): STDs, such as chlamydia and gonorrhea, can cause inflammation and scarring in the male reproductive tract, leading to blockages or damage that impair sperm transport or production. c. Alcohol Consumption: Excessive alcohol intake can reduce testosterone levels, impair sperm production, and decrease sperm quality. Since all three factors contribute to male infertility, the correct answer is "All of the above." The final answer is $\boxed{\text{d. All of the above}}$