1a) Define carbohydrates and classify them with suitable examples. 1b) Outline the major steps of glycolysis.

Another one Lawrence — let's solve it. 1a) Define carbohydrates and classify them with suitable examples. Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, typically with a hydrogen-to-oxygen ratio of 2:1. They serve as the primary source of energy for living organisms and are essential structural components. Carbohydrates are classified into four main types: Monosaccharides: Simple sugars that are the basic units of carbohydrates. Examples: Glucose, Fructose, Galactose*. Disaccharides: Formed when two monosaccharides are joined together. Examples: Sucrose (glucose + fructose), Lactose (glucose + galactose), Maltose* (glucose + glucose). Oligosaccharides: Contain 3 to 10 monosaccharide units. Examples: Raffinose, Stachyose*. Polysaccharides: Long chains of many monosaccharide units. Examples: Starch (plant energy storage), Glycogen (animal energy storage), Cellulose* (plant structural component). 1b) Outline the major steps of glycolysis. Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH. It occurs in the cytoplasm and consists of 10 steps, broadly divided into two phases: Energy-Investment Phase: 1. Phosphorylation of Glucose: Glucose is phosphorylated by hexokinase, using 1 ATP, to form Glucose-6-phosphate. 2. Isomerization: Glucose-6-phosphate is converted to Fructose-6-phosphate. 3. Phosphorylation of Fructose-6-phosphate: Fructose-6-phosphate is phosphorylated by phosphofructokinase-1, using another 1 ATP, to form Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate. 4. Cleavage: Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is split into two 3-carbon molecules: Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). 5. Isomerization: DHAP is converted to G3P, resulting in two molecules of G3P. Energy-Payoff Phase (occurs twice for each glucose molecule): 6. Oxidation and Phosphorylation: Each G3P is oxidized and phosphorylated to 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate, producing 1 NADH. 7. ATP Production: 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate transfers a phosphate group to ADP, forming 1 ATP and 3-Phosphoglycerate. 8. Rearrangement: 3-Phosphoglycerate is converted to 2-Phosphoglycerate. 9. Dehydration: 2-Phosphoglycerate is dehydrated to Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP). 10. ATP Production: PEP transfers a phosphate group to ADP, forming 1 ATP and Pyruvate. Net products per glucose molecule: 2 Pyruvate, 2 ATP, 2 NADH Send me the next one 📸